Gender perspectives of Water Use and Governance in Eastern Africa: a Systematic Review

Abstract

This report examines the extent to which water initiatives (policies, strategies, plans, projects and programmes) have integrated a gender lens in thirteen countries in Eastern Africa (namely, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda). It analyses how the framing conditions set by the water initiatives in their goals, objectives, activities, indicators, and outcomes contribute to reducing gender inequality in access to water and in decision making about water-use. The report used a two-pronged approach. First, analysis of water related legislations (including Acts, Bills and Policies) as well as other strategic Plans and Strategies of relevant government state organs. Secondly, empirical data from an online survey and key informant interviews of policy makers in water and related sectors was done to examine how gender mediates access to water and how it is accounted for in water management practices. The report also used a gender analytical framework and associated indicators (modified from the UNESCO-WWAP framework) of gender integration in the water sector into a conceptual framework of policy engagement with gender. Three levels of gender integration were used, that is gender sensitive (water policies that are aware of and address gender differences), gender responsiveness (actions within the policies that reflect an understanding of gender roles and inequalities and conduct gender analysis and ensures gender inclusiveness) and gender transformative (water policies that conduct gender analysis, addresses gender differences and power inequalities, and transforms gender relations to achieve gender equity in the water sector). Additionally, using the conceptual framework, a systematic review of intersection of climate change, water and gender was conducted. A total of 369 water initiatives (programs, projects, strategies policies) were identified having been implemented between the years of 2015-2020. Close to half of the documents identified were in Rwanda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania with Kenya (46) and Ethiopia (42) representing the most frequent water initiatives. Out of the 369 water legislations, project, and programs, only 39.6% of them mention gender and gender related terms such as equality, equity, gender balance, women participation, increasing access to water for women and girls, and mainstreaming gender into water projects and program. At the level of policy, there is no shortage of booming support for gender inclusion. Out of the 369 water initiatives identified, 48 of them were legislations (Acts/Bills/Policies) and only 18 mention gender and related terms. Of the 18 legislations, 19.6% mention gender considerations in the vision, goal and/or objectives. Analysis of the 18 water Act/Bills/ Policies, plans and strategies documents scored very low in their integration of gender. Out of the 18 identified, 13, 3 and 2 are Gender-sensitive, Gender-responsive and Gender transformative, respectively. Findings show that Eastern African countries’ water policy has institutionalized various measures to reduce gender inequality, with the major initiative to increase women’s participation in water user groups (24.8%), allocate budget to gender mainstreaming in water sector (29.8%) and identification of specific activities targeting women, girls, and vulnerable group (32.4%). Information from respondents found that 4.2% and 16.8% strongly disagreed and disagreed, respectively that the gender actions outlined in the water legislations have been implemented by governments. Climate variability and climate change is negatively impacting lives and livelihoods in Eastern Africa sub-region. Therefore, ensuring that responses to climate change engage with water and gender is critical. A total of 92 climate change initiatives were identified in the 13 countries. All these initiatives mention water as one of the priority sectors. Of the 92 initiatives, almost half of them integrate different aspects of gender and specifically mention women, children, girls, and vulnerable people. Review of the climate change policies, plans and strategies show that 12.4% of them mention gender and water as a priority sector. Examples of gendered adaptation actions geared towards increasing women access to water under the changing climate include a) ensuring gender equality in the water sector, b) ensuring equity in sharing the benefits that arise from climate actions in the water sector, and c) promote gender responsive water technologies and innovations through financing and capacity building especially for women, youth, and marginalized people. The study found that despite water being critical for alleviating poverty and achieving food security in rural households, especially those headed by women, women still face limited water supply emanating from governance problems, with weak institutional arrangements that fail to govern water resources equitably and effectively. The report demonstrated that existing water governance structures lack mechanisms which make them accountable to include women, girls, and vulnerable waters users on at domestic level. There is therefore the need for governments to intensify governance measures through decentralization of policies (e.g., in Kenya to County or Sub- County level of governance) to avail women and girls’ access to water resources and participation in decision making processes Many of the water initiatives do not mention use of gender disaggregated data to inform their design. Only 16% of the initiatives mentioned use of gender disaggregated data and identified gender related problems in the introduction/preamble. The great majority of the water initiatives recognized that women lack access to adequate water supply and are thus vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, have low participation in decision-making, and consequently lack influence in the management of water resources. Women’s important role in water management, both in the household and in small-scale farming, is widely recognized, yet effective implementation of methods and strategies to overcome gender-based barriers to women’s equal participation in water and sanitation projects remain elusive. This became very clear from the study where respondents strongly disagreed that women are included and participate in water governance both at community and national level. All the respondents reported that women are not involved in planning and implementation of water-related projects and programs at community level. Additionally, respondents reported that financial resources are not allocated to support participation of women in water management projects and programs. These clearly indicate that the voices of women and their participation is not considered a priority in all the countries in Eastern Africa. Gender inequality is a persistent feature of the public participation and policy-making spheres. Results of this study show that women are under-represented in leadership positions in various water institutions from community to national level. At the community level, the low level of women’s participation is due to their own fear of engaging within a male dominated space, the multiple roles, and responsibilities that women undertake each day that does not give them time to engage in leadership, and women not knowing that they can take on leadership roles in water sector. Other structural constraints that hinder women’s participation include access to land and land ownership, and therefore to water rights and the right to take part in WUAs. Lane. At the national level, less than 16% of the leadership positions in water ministries, departments and institutions are headed by women. This study found out that the reasons for lack of women in leadership positions is largely due to the scarcity of women water professionals because few women take water related academic disciplines, gender stereotyping, and perceptions from both men and women that women lack managerial and technical skills. This study concludes that to better understand the water-gender-climate change interlinkages, there is a clear need for increased efforts toward sex-disaggregated data collection and use to inform policies and projects, as well as addressing gender inequalities with respect to water access and climate change adaptation This analysis supports the conjecture that addressing the water-gender- nexus will help manage the negative impacts of climate change and have a more significant impact on achieving the targets of SDGs 5, 6 and 13 in tandem.